War: Causes of War

Slides – Teaching Aid

Introduction:

War is a form of armed conflict that occurs between states, governments, societies, or organized groups, typically characterized by extreme violence, widespread destruction, and high mortality rates. Throughout history, war has shaped nations and civilizations, often arising from causes such as political disputes, economic interests, territorial claims, religious differences, and quests for power. While traditionally defined as hostilities between political groups of considerable duration and magnitude, the scope of war also extends to civil wars and internal conflicts, reflecting its complexity as a social and political phenomenon.

Meaning and Definition of War

1. Organized Armed Conflict: War involves organized, deliberate violence between groups—such as states, nations, or factions—often using military forces and weapons.
2. Political or Social Objectives: War typically arises from political, economic, territorial, or ideological disputes, as groups seek to achieve specific goals or assert their interests.
3. Collective Participation: Unlike individual acts of violence, war is collective in nature, involving coordinated efforts by large numbers of people following strategies and leadership.
4. Widespread Impact: War leads to significant destruction, loss of life, disruption of societies, and long-lasting consequences for populations, economies, and cultures.
5. Continuum of Hostility: As some thinkers have noted, war is not only about active fighting but also includes states of tension, preparation, and undeclared hostilities between potential adversaries.

• Cicero defined war simply as “a contention by force,” centering on the use of power to resolve disputes.
• Hugo Grotius described war as “the state of contending parties, considered as such,” emphasizing the ongoing opposition rather than just active fighting.
• Thomas Hobbes took a broader view: “By war is meant a state of affairs, which may exist even while its operations are not continued,” thus including the periods of tension and preparation as part of war.
• Karl von Clausewitz, a highly influential military theorist, famously stated, “War is nothing but a continuation of political intercourse, carried on with other means,” and also “an act of violence intended to compel our opponents to fulfill our will,” highlighting war’s instrumental and political nature.
• Bertrand Russell offered a more sociological perspective: “War is conflict between two groups, each of which attempts to kill and maim as many as possible of the other group in order to achieve some object which it desires,” placing focus on organized violence as a means to an end.

Causes of War

Here are the primary causes of war, each illustrated with real-world examples:

1. Territorial Disputes

Nations often go to war over the control of land or regions.

Territorial disputes are a fundamental cause of war because they involve direct competition over something both sides believe is indivisible and tied to their core interests: land. This competition often escalates into violence because the stakes—control, resources, security, and national pride—are seen as non-negotiable.

One main reason is that territory is deeply connected to national identity and history. People often regard certain lands as part of their cultural or historical heritage, even sacred. This can make compromise politically or emotionally impossible, and leaders risk losing support if they appear to give up these lands. As a result, governments may resort to force to assert their claims rather than negotiate.

On a practical level, disputed territories can be valuable for their resources—water, minerals, farmland, or energy—and for their strategic advantages, such as having defensive borders or access to important sea lanes. When one country feels that another threatens these resources or security, the incentive to act aggressively increases, often leading to military confrontation.

Border disputes also raise the risk of accidental escalation. Unsettled boundaries can lead to misunderstandings, skirmishes, or occupations by patrols or local militias, which can quickly spiral into larger conflicts as both sides respond with greater force.

Finally, when a dispute is not resolved and one side takes land by force, it often sows the seeds for future conflict. The injured party feels a loss of honor or security and may seek revenge or retribution, leading to cycles of war even after a temporary peace.

In sum, territorial disputes make war likely because they combine practical, emotional, and strategic interests that are fundamental to state survival and identity—often leaving little room for compromise and increasing the risk of violent confrontation.

• Example: The India-Pakistan wars over Kashmir, and the conflict between Russia and Ukraine, where the annexation of Crimea (2014) and subsequent full-scale invasion (2022) were driven by territorial claims.

2. Resource Competition

Struggles over access to vital resources—such as oil, minerals, or water—can trigger war.

Resource competition is a powerful cause of war because access to essentials like water, oil, minerals, and farmland is critical for a country’s survival, economy, and power. When these resources are scarce or unevenly distributed, nations and groups may see control over them as a matter of life and death, making compromise difficult and conflict more likely.

One of the main ways this leads to war is through direct competition. When two or more parties want the same resource and there isn’t enough to go around, tensions rise. Instead of sharing, they might choose to fight, believing that gaining control will secure their future. For example, oil-rich regions have repeatedly seen wars because oil is so vital for both wealth and military strength.

Economic pressures also play a role. Governments and even rebel groups may start or prolong wars to capture resources that can fund their activities, pay soldiers, or buy weapons. This creates a cycle where conflict is sustained by the very resources it’s fought over.

Strategic interests add another layer. Controlling key resources can give a country significant geopolitical leverage. Major powers may intervene in distant conflicts to protect their access to vital resources, sometimes even sparking larger international wars.

Environmental stress, such as droughts or soil degradation, can worsen resource competition, especially in regions already facing scarcity. As populations grow and climate change makes resources even more unpredictable, the risk of conflict over basics like water and land increases.

Historically, we’ve seen this pattern play out in colonial conquests, World War II, and ongoing civil wars in resource-rich but unstable regions. The struggle for resources is often a zero-sum game—what one side gains, the other loses—so the incentive to use force is strong when peaceful solutions seem impossible.

In summary, resource competition drives war by creating high-stakes contests over essentials that are hard to share or compromise on. When diplomacy fails, the temptation to use military force to secure these vital assets becomes overwhelming, making resource-related conflicts both common and persistent.

• Example: Japan’s expansion across Manchuria and Southeast Asia before and during World War II was driven by a quest for oil and raw materials, eventually leading to the Pacific War. Modern conflicts such as those in Sudan and the Sahel region of Africa are fueled by competition for land and water due to resource scarcity.

3. Nationalism

Extreme pride and loyalty to one’s nation or ethnic group can spark conflict, especially when groups seek independence or dominance.

Nationalism is a powerful cause of war because it fuels intense loyalty and pride in one’s own nation, often at the expense of others. When people identify strongly with their national group, they may come to view outsiders as rivals or even enemies, especially if those groups have different cultures, languages, or histories. This us-versus-them mentality can turn competition or disagreement into outright conflict.

One consistent trigger is the desire for national self-determination. Ethnic or regional groups within existing states sometimes feel oppressed or marginalized and seek independence. This has led to wars, as central governments often resist such movements, sometimes using force to maintain control. For example, the breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s led to several violent conflicts largely because of competing nationalist aspirations among Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, and others.

Nationalism also amplifies the impact of historical grievances. Past conflicts, territorial losses, or perceived injustices are passed down through generations and kept alive in national memory. This can make compromise or peaceful settlement much harder, as neither side wants to appear weak or disloyal to their national cause.

Another factor is the role of political leaders, who may use nationalist rhetoric to unite their populations, distract from domestic problems, or justify aggressive foreign policies. By appealing to national pride or fear of outsiders, leaders can mobilize public support for war, even when the practical reasons for conflict are less clear.

• Example: Nationalistic fervor across Europe was a major cause of World War I, as ethnic minorities within empires pushed for nationhood, and rival national pride drove countries toward confrontation.

4. Ideological and Religious Differences

Wars may erupt due to conflicting ideologies or religious beliefs.

• Example: The Korean War (1950–1953) was rooted in ideological conflict between communism and democracy/capitalism. Religious wars include the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) between Catholics and Protestants in Europe, and the Crusades between Christians and Muslims in the Middle Ages.

5. Imperialism and Colonial Ambition

Desire to expand an empire or colonial holdings has historically led to wars of conquest.

• Example: The United States’ war with Spain in 1898 resulted in the U.S. acquiring territories like Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam from Spain1.

6. Revenge and Retribution

Past conflicts or perceived wrongs can incite future wars as nations or groups seek payback.

• Example: The Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) planted seeds for future conflicts in Europe, with France seeking revenge for its defeat, contributing indirectly to the climate before World War I.

7. Leadership and Political Ambition

Sometimes, wars are instigated by the ambitions or unchecked power of political leaders.

• Example: The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine underscores how autocratic decision-making, unchecked by domestic opposition, can result in aggressive wars.

8. Ecological and Demographic Pressure

Environmental changes and population growth can lead to violent competition.

• Example: The ongoing herder–farmer conflicts in countries like Nigeria and Sudan have worsened due to land degradation, aridification, and growing populations.